Country Analysis Paper on Norway Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Country Analysis Paper on Norway - Essay Example Good economic performances continue support to areas losing residents in Norway. The Nordic model follows both justice and aggressive apprehensions. Maintaining the main features of the settlement pattern is an eternal objective of the nation. Policies mainly target thinly populated areas, with stress on service delivery and competitiveness. Measures are based on employment oriented economic methods and service delivery balancing. Diagnosis of regional competitiveness advantages could improve the design of policy tools. Regional innovation and competitiveness policies involve a lot of aspects. The role of major urban areas in knowledge production and circulation should be better considered. Recent emphasis on city attractiveness and competitiveness, particularly in Oslo, create the basis for an open city policy. The role of small and medium sized cities needs to be better incorporated into regional innovation strategies. Place-based policy approaches can enhance the impact of regiona l competitiveness and innovation policies. Depopulation and ageing in more than half of Norwegian municipalities affect the cost of services. Population decline produces apprehensions about school closures and staffing problems.

The Federal Reserve Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

The Federal Reserve - Essay Example As compared to the employment, the self employed or an entrepreneur in general, have to invest some amount, which is said capital, and it is the fate of the self employed that it may succeed or fail, whereas in the employment there is no risk for the investment, as there is no investment required, all the employee has just to do is to fulfill the job requirement and to get a an earning at fixed rate. The amount to be invested in business has risk, as above mentioned, but the business has too much attraction, because it has good returns, and if comparable by the employment, the investor may receive many multiples of the salary in a single period. A return on money received from the business, that is the profit in general determines the business efficiency. But the question is that, is it necessary to invest money into a company and purchasing the shares? Can’t it be invested in the bank to get the interest income on that? This question has been evaluated in the context of the g iven topic, and will help in determining the criticalness of various securities in the financial markets. Ordinary shares Ordinary shares are the main source of capital for any public company, the other sources of capital is the debt etc. Ordinary shares provide the money that the shareholders pay to the company and in return receive the dividend, and the rate of dividend depends on the performance of the company. The stock market is the market of corporate securities, but the corporations may issue stock; it is the stock that provides initial capital for a company and the limited liability is the key factor in the corporate sector (J Richard, 1998). A company with healthy profits will probably go for good dividend yield, whereas the company suffering from loss may not issue dividends to the shareholders. It should be kept into consideration that the company will only share the profit, and the shareholders are not supposed to compensate on the behalf of the loss of the company. How it generates the economic wealth A person may have en economic role in terms of economics, he may be dependant or independent, he may be a surplus unit or deficit unit. A deficit unit is anyone who has more money than he spends, and hence he can utilize the money to get more money. This money can be given to those who are deficit unit, or those who may need it, which is the function of stock exchanges and the credit unions. So those who have more money can spend their money into the stock markets and can receive the return on it. This rate of return depends on the performance of the company. When a person receive an income from the shares, that is called the dividend, the person has more to spend, which can be given to deficit units at a certain rate of return, and the deficit unit may start his/her own economic activity, that may be any businesses, but without this extra money given by surplus unit to the deficit unit through purchasing shares or purchasing government securities to the deficit unit, helps the deficit unit to pass some threshold, for the entrepreneur it may be the heavy capital required to start a business, or the government which want the people savings in their reserves which is going to be discussed later. Since the more economic activity can be generated by this security, economy can developed and the employment rate may increase, and the more the volume of economic activity, the more the taxes are accumulated, which in turn provide good infrastructure to the general

Spatial Patterns Of Tropical And Temperate Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay

Spatial Patterns Of Tropical And Temperate Deforestation Environmental Sciences Essay Global deforestation has become a major concern of human society. Belonging to the last untouched and pristine terrestrial ecosystems on earth, tropical forests in particular are a central issue of many conservation movements. Safeguarding global biological diversity has been widely approved as a political goal throughout the global community with forests playing a major role. Large and rare animals and pictures of burned forests have strengthened the belief in the moral and ethic injustice currently taking place in the tropics. Yet, we have to consider that this point of view originates in western society and mainly remains widely accepted in the developed world where for the most part no tropical forests exist. In contrast to the (partly) intact and less degraded forest ecosystems of the tropics, in the highly developed countries of the northern hemisphere large parts of temperate forest ecosystems have long vanished and been replaced by anthropogenic landscapes. This change in lan d use has resulted in the creation of severely transformed ecosystems fundamental for the economic and social development. These include, for instance, agricultural, pastoral, industrial and urban landscapes. The long time that has passed since their clearance often leaves temperate forests out of the current investigation on deforestation patterns. Rather, scientists concentrate on patterns of tropical deforestation, which is currently the most alarming regarding the net loss of forest cover. Generally, land degradation occurs to a great extent in forested areas since about 25% of total land degradation is associated with broad-leaved forests and 17% with boreal forests (UNEP 2007). With the severity of the consequences of global deforestation becoming evident, environmental and economic science is increasingly addressing the issue. Just recently, beginning in the late 1980s, environmental economists have been publishing new thoughts on valuing the environment and considering its ecological functions in economic decision-making (see de Groot 1987, 1992; Daily 1997; Costanza et al. 1997; among others). Nowadays, the interdependence and importance of forest ecosystem functions and services is widely accepted throughout scientific and economic literature. This development has raised the general awareness of the importance of well functioning and sustainably managed forests and has augmented the acceptance of forest conservation movements (at least in western societies). Supp orted by new technologies, such as satellite imagery and remote sensing methods, the study of deforestation processes and spatial patterns of deforestation has been facilitated at various levels and different scales at affordable costs. By using new technologies and approaches, many studies have been conducted in an attempt to estimate the extent of deforestation and to explain its causes. A great amount of studies focuses on the processes of tropical deforestation which is doubtlessly most alarming at the moment. However, other studies have approached deforestation from a global perspective and also for temperate forest ecosystems in particular. In light of the ongoing debates on deforestation, this paper first defines forest degradation and deforestation and then explores potential misunderstandings of such definitions. This discussion is followed by an analysis of the causes of global deforestation process and concludes with some key findings for tropical as well as temperate deforestation patterns. 2 Defining forest degradation and deforestation Drawing on the publication by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (2009), the following section will shortly present the debate on the definition of forest degradation and deforestation in a global context. As the number of studies and policy instruments concerning forest degradation and deforestation are numerous it is necessary to establish a common language in order to draw mutual conclusions and to find applicable solutions. Being a serious environmental, social and economic problem, forest degradation and deforestation are issues of major concern discussed at various political levels as well as by the public. As consequences of deforestation become evident not only on the local but also on the global scale, finding consensus among different parties is of great importance for responding adequately to a daunting challenge. The definition of forest degradation and deforestation, however, is technically and scientifically difficult to define because it is viewed and perceived differently by various stakeholders who might have different objectives regarding forest use or conversion. Furthermore, discrepancies in the definition can have implications on forest related policy making processes as well as on the monitoring and enforcement of policies (FAO 2009). The FAO report argues that forest-related definitions [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] which are outcomes of international processes are policy tools and can have major economic, social and environmental implications (FAO 2009, p. 8). Besides monitoring purposes, forest-related definitions also determine financial flows and the allocation of financial incentives for various purposes (e.g. restoration or improvement measures, projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) or the Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD) program) (FAO 2009). 2.1 Deforestation Deforestation describes the process of land use change from forest to non-forest (FAO 2009). However, this quite simple definition based on certain thresholds of deforestation has the potential to cause conflicts when the individual factors are evaluated. Different nations, international organizations or ethnic groups might have differing perceptions and definitions of forest or non-forest. Drawing on the definition provided by the FAO, forests are defined as land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than five meters and a canopy cover of more than ten percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ (FAO 2005, p. 16). This definition does not include land that is predominately under agricultural or urban use (FAO 2004). Furthermore, deforestation can occur on different spatial and temporal scales which will be discussed later in the following section. 2.2 Forest degradation While deforestation is relatively easy to define, much more effort is required to define forest degradation. In 2002, a symposium of international forestry-related organizations consisting of the FAO, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), the International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) agreed on a common definition of forest degradation, defining it as the reduction of the capacity of a forest to provide goods and services (FAO 2009a, p. 9). This process occurs within the forest and negatively affects the characteristics of the forest, which can be of structural or functional nature and which determine the capacity to provide goods and services. Defining the latter two terms well is a challenging and demanding task. The definition can be comprehensible for one party but could be understood very differently or be misunderstood. For instance, with r egard to the REDD mechanism, forest degradation considers particularly the reduction in carbon stocks within a forest (FAO 2009b). However, there is still a lack of practically applicable approaches to measure the extent of forest degradation because the existing definition is not an operational formulation due to different perceptions of what forest degradation furthermore entails (FAO 2009). Therefore, the United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) has called for greater harmonization of internationally applicable definitions related to forests to facilitate monitoring and reporting on progress towards the achievement of the global objectives on forests and sustainable forest management [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦](FAO 2009, p. 8). 3 Processes of deforestation As described above, deforestation is a process of change in land use. Although it is currently being addressed widely at different political levels as well as by the public, it is not a new phenomenon. Since humankind began to control fire and to domesticate animals, forests needed to be cleared for various purposes. However, among great parts of western society forests nowadays are being valued very differently than even a hundred years ago. Scientific progress, environmental awareness, technical innovations and deliberative policies have made clear that deforestation has become an important and global issue. The following section shortly depicts the process of deforestation after which the underlying causes for this development and typical observable spatial patterns of deforestation will be presented. In general, it can be distinguished between natural and anthropogenic disturbance processes. Natural interferences occur naturally in the environment, in contrast to anthropogenic interferences which are human induced. While natural stresses occur rather on a small to medium scale and are of relatively short term, anthropogenic disturbances often occur on a medium to large scale and are long term processes. The former include forest clearances by natural wildfires, wind (storms), extreme weather events or changing climatic conditions (though being argued to be human induced). The latter includes timber extraction, pastoral uses, small shifting cultivation plots, induced forest fires and large scale forest conversion activities. Anthropogenic disturbances can either be intentional (direct), e.g. logging or land conversion, or unintentional (indirect), e.g. introduction of invasive species (FAO 2009). However, forest disturbance regimes become less predictable once natural and anthropo genic factors combine (FAO 2009). The two factors are often dependent on each other and combinations can be complex and take various forms. For instance, anthropogenic impacts on forest structure and dynamics in tropical mountain regions can have severe consequences for downstream areas during naturally occurring storm events in the form of floods and landslides. Further, human impacts influence the vulnerability of forests to degradation from natural causes, can negatively affect the successional regeneration process in naturally disturbed forests, and naturally occurring drought periods can be the cause for large scale forest fires ignited by escaped land clearing fires (Goldammer 1992). Moreover, global ecological feedback mechanisms can have far reaching impacts on anthropogenic forest interferences (Goldammer 1992); this will be addressed later in the paper. Usually, forest degradation is associated with a reduction of the vegetative cover (Lund 2009 in FAO 2009). Considering forest degradation as a continuous internal process caused either by natural or human induced disturbances, various thresholds can be defined, for example, in terms of percentage of canopy cover. Thus, when passing a certain threshold, a forest can be classified into various levels of degradation and eventually, when reaching a high level of openness, the forest cannot longer be defined as a forest (i.e. 10% canopy cover), although administratively it still might be considered forest land (FAO 2009). Deforestation can occur abruptly in a very short period of time by simply removing the lands tree cover. Under those circumstances, the forest is usually cleared for the purpose of land conversion for other forms of land use or for the substitution by monoculture plantations of exotic tree species. This form of deforestation, if sufficiently large, is easily detectable by remote sensing (FAO 2009). However, deforestation can also occur over a longer period of a subsequent forest degradation process caused by disturbances which vary in terms of severity, quality, origin, extent and frequency. The impacts occur on varying spatial and temporal scales and are dependent on the type and specific characteristics of the forest (FAO 2009). Its detection and measurement is relatively difficult as it implies a long-term loss of biomass, productivity or species composition that is difficult to assess, especially the impacts on soils, water, nutrients, biodiversity and the landscape. (FAO 2009, p. 13). Yet, forest degradation is not inevitably a prerequisite for deforestation. Forests can also exist as degraded forests for a long period of time without reaching the level of deforestation (Angelsen et al. 2008). 4 Causes for deforestation Various direct and indirect causes for tropical deforestation exist (Geist and Lambin 2002). Drawing on an earlier publication by the two authors (2001), the results are based on the analysis and interpretation of 152 subnational case studies within the tropics. Direct or proximate causes are human activities or immediate actions at the local level [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] that originate from intended land use and directly impact forest cover (Geist and Lambin 2002, p. 143). Indirect causes or underlying driving forces are fundamental social processes [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] that underpin the proximate causes and either operate at the local level or have an indirect impact from the national or global level (p. 143). In other words, direct causes for deforestation are the actual physical impacts on forest cover that degrade the forest or convert it to other forms of land use. Indirect causes, on the other side, are institutional arrangements or socio-demographic forces which facilitate the existence and emergence of the direct causes. At the proximate level, the results clearly show that deforestation in the majority of cases is caused by multi-factorial terms, that is, a combination of direct causes rather than by a single variable. The four single causes are (decreasing in relevance): agricultural expansion, infrastructure extension, wood extraction and other factors (land characteristics, biophysical drivers and social trigger events). The most frequent combination of direct causes is the agricultural wood extraction infrastructure expansion combination that ultimately leads to deforestation (3-factor term of causation) (Geist and Lambin 2001). However, it is questionable to just project this result to the entire tropical forest biome. Each individual case of (small to large scale) deforestation can have a distinct history of the cause or need to change the land use form and might statistically not be represented in the current literature. Likewise, at the underlying, institutional level tropical deforestation is associated with synergetic driver combinations rather than individually operating forces. The five single driving forces are (decreasing in relevance): Economic factors, policy and institutional factors, technological factors, cultural factors, demographic factors (Geist and Lambin 2001). Here, the indirect factors are in the majority operating at the 5-factor term of causation, that is, all underlying factors together are argued to be driving deforestation in more than a third of all cases. In Lambin and Geist (2003), the two authors discuss regional differences in tropical deforestation in more detail. In fact, they argue that the processes of humid tropical deforestation in the three most important areas, namely Latin America, Southeast Asia and Africa, can vary to a great extent. Reasons for the regional differences are derived from three sets of factors: the environmental and land-use history, the particular combination of causes triggering and driving land-use change, and the feedback structure, that is the social and ecological responses to land-cover changes (p.24). Though, Rudel (2006) distinguishes more precisely the most important tropical forest areas (Central America the Caribbean, South America, West Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia) and depicts a detailed image of the relevant agents of deforestation (road builders, corporate loggers, forest managers, reserve advocates, urban enterprises and consumers). He argues that wh ile the size of the forest area decreases, the agents of change adjust their behaviour and act differently in respect to the actual forest size. The authors main conclusions can be shortly summarized as follows. As forests decline in size roads are ceased to be built, corporate enterprises stop exploiting the forests, community forest management becomes more effective, protected forest areas become less applicable for conservation measures, and degraded sites are reforested by urban consumers (Rudel 2006). Thus, the causes for deforestation and land use change are not static and since all factors are interdependent it is difficult to assess causes in a biome wide or global perspective. However, the quite general conclusions that are drawn by Geist and Lambin for the three major tropical forest areas (Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa) must be viewed cautiously. For instance, an extensive and diverse area such as central and western Africa is reviewed by means of only 19 case studies from eight countries. The results then are treated non-exclusive, are thus assumed to be comparable (although being quantitative as well as qualitative) and are used for drawing representative conclusions on the entire tropical Africa (Geist and Lambin 2001). Furthermore, the definition of deforestation that is used by the authors must be viewed critically since they use a broad and inclusive (Geist and Lambin 2001, p.17) definition which considers not only forest conversion (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) but also different types of [forest] degradation (p.17). Nevertheless, Geist and Lambin (2001, 2002, 2003) provide a good overview of the existing causes for deforestation in the tropics an d relate underlying and direct causes (as well as accompanying occurrences) before they conclude with a quantification of the causative linkages. Also, they discuss the strengths and weaknesses of their chosen methodology and address potential biases and ambiguities to the reader adequately (2001, p. 17 ff). Also, it is important to stress the importance of roads or access in general to (remote) forest areas, which is a prerequisite for large scale anthropogenic interferences. This is true not only in the tropical forest biome but also in the temperate forest biome. In many logistic regression models for the assessment of deforestation patterns, the distance to roads is a major factor and closely related to deforestation processes (Mertens and Lambin 1997; Altamirano and Lara 2010; Echeverria et al. 2008; Wilson et al. 2005; among others). Although agricultural expansion is mentioned to be the most significant cause for deforestation, it should be mentioned that the intensification of agricultural practices, however, can have a positive effect on remaining forests since productivity increases and the pressure of expansion thus is reduced (cf. Barbier 2001). As the global human population and the demand for food and agricultural products increase, the importance of agriculture must not be neglected and should be incorporated into policy responses. In his book Logjam Deforestation and the Crisis of Global Governance, David Humphreys (2006) shortly describes the European deforestation process from an institutional economics perspective. He argues that, in contrast to Garret Hardins theory of the tragedy of the commons, common property regimes are crucial for the conservation of forest public goods (such as watershed protection or climate regulation) as long as land tenure rights and legal ownership are secured. Likewise, Elinor Ostrom (2002) argues similarly in her essay Reformulating the Commons and identifies several requisite attributes for the resource system and the appropriators in order for efficient self-governing associations to form. The most important attributes mentioned are the spatial extent of the resource system, the salience or dependence of the appropriators on the resource for a major portion of their livelihood, trust and reciprocity and autonomy, among others (Ostrom 2002, p. 5). Common property regimes can be defined as institutional arrangements for the cooperative (shared, joined, collective) use, management, and sometimes ownership of natural resources. (McKean 2000 in Humphreys 2006, p. 4). Humphreys (2006) states that in Europe the common use of forests under public ownership was widely respected until the Middle ages when the aristocracy and political elites organized the systematic and widespread displacement of commoners from common land, and the subsequent enclosure of this land by fencing (p. 6), thus, changing the property regime from public to private. Then, with the rise of the centralized state during the 16th to 18th century, forests were further enclosed and exploited with timber as a steady revenue source. In central Europe soon only few species were considered economically profitable. By conserving only economically valuable species, this instrumental, utilitarian and abstractionist logic eroded biodiversity in the forest and promoted the development of scientific f orestry [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] (Humphreys 2006, p. 6). This socioeconomic development, an increasing demand for timber and fuel wood and a steadily growing population promoted the exploitation of temperate forests across Europe and lead to the degradation of the forest public goods which were considered unproductive in economic terms. The practices of enclosure and scientific forestry were later also brought to the European colonies in Africa, Asia, Australia and the Americas (Humphreys 2006) where currently remaining pristine tropical forests are experiencing a similar trend. To sum up this paragraph, again I use the words of David Humphreys since they convincingly make a point and cannot be formulated better. Enclosure during the medieval and colonial eras degraded and destroyed forest commons across the world. Forest degradation in the 20th and 21st centuries has rarely been due to poorly functioning common property regimes. It is invariably the result of the enclosure of commons by s tate and private interests, who overexploit the forests for economic gain and who have a totally different relationship to the forest than the commoners whom they displaced. (p. 7). 5 Spatial change patterns Only as recent as the last 150 years have tropical forests experienced a drastic human induced change in terms of forest cover and species composition in contrast to many temperate forest ecosystems which have experienced severe and large scale changes for much longer. While vast areas of tropical forest were still without anthropogenic pressure, temperate forest landscapes (in Europe i.e.) were, in relation to available land area, highly populated and forest ecosystems largely impacted and altered (Potapov et al. 2009). Today, it is estimated that over one half of the temperate forest biome has been fragmented or removed by humans, in comparison to nearly one quarter of the tropical forest biome (Wade et al. 2008) Tropical forests have recently experienced a constant loss of forest area. Achard et al. (2002) estimated a loss of tropical forest of 0.52 % for the period 1990-1997 and Hansen et al. (2008) estimated that 1.39 % of the total tropical forest area were lost between 2000 and 2005. Temperate forests, however, recently experience neither large net gains nor losses in forest area and some areas even show an increase in forest cover (FRA 2010). For the tropics, six general spatial patterns of the forest/non-forest interface were developed by Husson et al. (1995) which were used for example in Mertens and Lambin (1997) or Geist and Lambin 2001. The six types of patterns are: geometric, corridor, fishbone, diffuse, patchy, and island. Geometric patterns are related to large-scale clearings for modern sector activities, corridor patterns to roadside colonization by spontaneous migrants, fishbone patterns to planned resettlement schemes (yet limited to the Brazilian Amazon), diffuse patterns to smallholder or traditional subsistence agriculture, patchy patterns to high population density areas with residual forest patches, and island patterns to (peripheral) urban areas (Geist and Lambin 2001, p.66). Such spatial patterns are easily detectable once the deforestation process occurs quickly and when the connectedness of the forest area was large hitherto. These characteristics are more likely to be found in the tropical moist bro adleaved forest type (especially in South America and Africa (Wade et al. 2003)) and thus the spatial models depicted here are more adequate to be used in the tropical forest biome. Source: Geist and Lambin (2001), p. 66 For the temperate forest biome (here: Europe) Estreguil and Mouton (2009, p. 6) present four different and typical patterns of forest loss. Drawing on publications by Forman (1995) and Bogaert et al. (2004) they characterize local spatial forest loss by a) attrition (the disappearance of patches), b) shrinkage (decrease of the size of remaining patches), c) perforation (cleared holes within forest patches), and d) fragmentation (braking up of forest areas). Source: Estreguil and Mouton (2009), p. 7 6 Consequences of deforestation The consequences of deforestation can cause local scale and far reaching ecological feedback mechanisms such as atmospheric, hydrological and climatic changes (Goldammer 1992) and can furthermore have implications on the socio-economic environment. This, in turn, affects the whole forest ecosystem at large scale and in the long run. Regarding the current debate on a changing global climate, forests are of major concern since they serve as a great sink for atmospheric carbon. The wooden and photoactive biomass as well as forest soils sequester large amounts of atmospheric carbon. In comparison, forests store and sequester more carbon than any other terrestrial ecosystem (Gibbs et al 2007). A great amount of the total human induced global carbon emissions is argued to be released from forest degradation and deforestation; a great amount in tropical regions since here deforestation rates are currently most striking. Calculations that not even include tropical forest fires estimate the amount of carbon released at 10-25% of the total human induced carbon emissions (Santilli et al. 2005; Houghton 2003). The proportion of carbon released by forests fires and burning of biomass is still difficult to determine but is practically responsible for great amounts of carbon and other harmful substances released into the atmos phere (Goldammer 1992; Houghton 2003). While tropical deforestation processes are estimated to significantly add to global carbon emissions and act as a source, temperate forests of the northern hemisphere are considered a carbon sink (Heath et al. 1993 in Potapov 2009; Goodale et al. 2002 in Houghton 2003). 7 Forest rehabilitation At any level of degradation, forest conditions can be improved and the process of degradation halted or even reversed. Essential for the rehabilitation of degraded forests are silvicultural or protection measures on degraded forest land or reforestation measures on non-forest land. These rehabilitation measures must be adapted to the specific ecological conditions of each individual area. If successful, those measures might eventually lead to a level of non-degraded forest (FAO 2009). In general, tropical forest rehabilitation is more complicated and requires more efforts than in temperate forests. From an institutional perspective, the implementation of rehabilitation or conservation measures by corporate enterprises is seldom achieved on a voluntary basis because (tropical) forests are mostly characterized by open access conditions and forest ecosystem services are public goods. Only if secure property rights are allocated, monitored and enforced and incentives for action are being provided are such measures more likely to be realized. Moreover, forest degradation and deforestation can be argued to be negative externalities that are often neglected by forestry or agricultural enterprises or even small-scale users. David Humphreys (2006) puts it as follows: While corporations are effective in supplying private goods, their efficacy in public good provision is highly questionable. Corporations have one overwhelming responsibility, namely to maximize shareholder value. This is a fiduciary responsibility in private law in most countries [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] (and) rationalizes both t he internalization of monetary benefits and the systematic externalization of social and environmental costs. (p. 11). For those ecologically negative externalities to be considered during decision making processes adequate policies and governance structures are required. In our current capitalist system of neoliberal economic policies, an ecologically and socially sustainable economy will be very difficult to achieve, if not impossible. 8 Conclusion The scientific progress towards an understanding of ecological forest processes and deforestation patterns has recently fueled the debate on the true value of intact forest ecosystems. With the recent tendency of accelerated anthropogenic forest conversion into other land uses, the impacts of considerable small-scale disturbances along with large-scale conversions accumulate to such an extent that they become measurable on a regional and even global level. Although forest ecosystems are of central importance regarding the economic development especially in humid tropical countries, Hansen et al. (2008) argue that forest governance is still impaired by a lack of timely information on forest cover change. They conclude that a mixed strategy for monitoring should include data at multiple temporal and spatial resolutions (p. 9443) providing a feasible and cost-effective methodology to produce timely, precise, and internally consistent estimates of biome-wide forest clearing (p. 9443) (Hansen et al. 2008). However, global governance on forest ecosystems is currently not sufficiently developed. A biome-wide assessment of the forest development must therefore be viewed critically. Rather, a decentralized assessment of the causes and processes of deforestation should be aimed at to find appropriate political answers to halt deforestation and promote a socially and environmentally sustainable forest management. Goldammer (1992) points out that a reliable assessment of tropical forest development requires detailed knowledge of interacting ecological processes, namely the consideration and connection of small-scale impacts with large-scale feedback mechanisms. Thus, not underestimating the social importance forests play, a comprehensive understanding of deforestation processes and patterns requires an interdisciplinary approach from an ecosystem perspective that considers ecological, economic and social sciences. Word count: 4558 (list of references excluded)

The Victims of Jack the Ripper Essay -- Research Papers Serial Killer

The Victims of Jack the Ripper Jack the Ripper is remembered as one of history’s most famous serial killers. His technique of getting his victims to lay down before he slashed their throats, then disemboweling them in a matter of a minute or two with as little blood flow as possible distinguishes him as one of the most methodical, ruthless killers to ever live. He even performed some of his gruesome murders right in the street and left his victims to be found minutes later by people or policemen passing by. This demonstrates what extremes he would actually go to fulfill his desire for killing. Through my report I will create a brief profile of Jack’s victims as well as explore the methodical and horrendous ways they were murdered. Mary Anne â€Å"Polly† Nichols Mary Anne Nichols was found dead on Aug. 31, 1888 between 3:30 and 4:00 A.M. by a porter on his way to work. At first, it appeared to the porter that the woman was just laying down in the street unconscious. Police officer John Neil was summoned to the scene minutes after the body was found. The light from his lamp revealed that the woman was in fact dead with a slashed throat. Dr. Rees Ralph Llewellyn was performing a surgery when he was called to make an official examination of the body. After the examination was complete he pronounced the woman dead by means of a slashed throat. He also took special note that the body was still warm, indicating that the victim had been dead perhaps only minutes before being discovered. The body was removed to the mortuary shed at the Old Montague Street Workhouse Infirmary to be autopsied. Only then was the unusually large puddle of blood that had collected beneath the body seen. Once at the mortuary, Dr. Llewellyn performed a full autopsy, which revealed more about the manner of the murder that was not acknowledged during the street examination. Not only was her throat slashed, but also her abdominal area and sexual organs had been brutally sliced and mutilated, which explained the large puddle of blood beneath the body. Furthermore, there were many bruises on the sides of her face, which indicated that she had been knocked unconscious before being mutilated. The murder was believed to have been committed with a stout-handled blade of six to eight inches long (Geary, p.7). Mary Anne Nichols was the first victim of Jack the Ripper who was deliberately ... ... handful of prostitutes. Another theory was that maybe he was taking revenge for a family member who was in a similar situation, or that he came from the same situation as some of the children of the prostitutes and was also left by his mother who ended up as a prostitute. Or maybe he just felt that he was merely cleansing society and doing it a favor by killing off a handful of people who he felt were scum who corrupted society. The ideal profile of Jack the Ripper was a single man, probably a doctor, who had bad experiences with prostitutes in the past, and had lived in London long enough to become familiar with its streets and alleys. He was obviously very daring and nerveless to commit such crimes in the streets, because he could have been caught at any time by anyone who happened to be passing by. Bibliography   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Beg, Paul, Martin Fido and Keith Skinner. The Jack the Ripper A-Z. London: Headline Book Publishing, 1991.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Geary, Rick. Jack the Ripper A Journal of the White Chapel Murders. New York: Nantier Beall Minoustchine Publishing, Inc., 1995.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sugden, Philip. The Complete History of Jack the Ripper. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., 1994.

Ms-05 Solved Assignment 2013

To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in MS-05 SOLVED ASSIGNMENT 2013 Presented by http://www. myignou. in/ Course Code Course Title Assignment Code Coverage : : : : MS – 5 Management of Machines and Materials MS-05/TMA/SEM-I/2013 All Blocks Note: Attempt all the questions and submit this assignment on or before 30th April, 2013 to the coordinator of your study center. Question 1. The Role of Industrial Eng neeri g M â€Å"Industrial Eng ne ring is co cerned with the design, improvement and installation of integrated systems f men, materials and equipment.It draws upon specialized know dg and skills i math matical, physical and social sciences together with the principle and me hods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. † It can therefore be seen that industrial engineers are designers of management systems and industrial engineering approach integrates various approaches such as op erations research, systems analysis, behavioral science etc. towards the integrated design of organizations.In this book many industrial engineering techniques will be used in various units which help us in better management of production systems. Operations Management – An Overview The Role of Models yI Indian Institution of Indus ial En ineering (IIIE) has adopted the following definition of Industrial Engineering: G Methods and techniques of scientific managemen hav tremendous role to play in helping us to make rational and logical decisions the context of production and operations management.Through scientifi m h ds to ls and techniques of industrial engineering and operations research along with behavioral science we can look at all facets of the problems and evaluate the onsequ nces of our actions before arriving at a decision. These techniques thu reinforce the s bjective or intuitive judgment and contribute to better management N O The scientific method for Operations management is growing pop arity because it allows for organizational decisions—whether by b siness or government—to be formulated under more rigorous considerations. U Discuss the role of Scientific methods in Operations Manageme t. To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Models are representation of systems with a view to explain certain aspects of system's behaviour. Generally a mathematical model is preferred in decision-making because it tries to explain system's objectives and function in terms of decision variables subject to our control as well as non-controllable parameters due to environment or resource constraints etc. Thus a simplified form of a model is: E = f (xj, yi) Where E =Measure of effectiveness or objective function xj =Controllable (decision), variable, j = 1 †¦ yj =Non-controllable parameter, i =1 †¦ m Thus a model provides us a cause-effect relationship so that we can evaluate ur alternative courses of action on the basis of our objectives and choose an optim l (best under the circumstances) strategy to maximise our effectivene s Thus mod s provide a valuable tool to compare our options and thus improve the q lity of decisions and provide us a better insight into our decision rocess Howe r it must be noted that models are a means to achieve an end (bet r decisions) nd not an end in itself.We must choose a simple, valid and logical mo el of the dec ion situation. A large number of model based techniques have b en de loped in th subject called `Operations Research' (OR) which help in mathemat al con eptual sation of many decision-making problems relevant to production/opera ions management. Some very versatile and powerful techniques like linea prog ming queuing theory and simulation have been applied extensively to st dy various problem areas in production management. Some of these will be d cribed, though briefly, in appropriate units in this book.The Role of Computers M In a large sized problem, a computer becomes a very efficient tool in problem solving and evaluation of alternati es. A b g size linear programming or simulation problem can be efficiently solved on omputers. Due to fast developments in computering facilities and a plication oftware, many OR models can he implemented via computers. Compu rs also ha e tremendous role in management information systems to provide us ful, relev nt and timely information for planning, monitoring and co tro f production systems-thus providing decision support through informati n.The Role of B havioural Science Since people are integral part of our production system, understanding of human behaviour is very important so that managers can evaluate the consequences of their actions on human relations, morale, motivation and productivity. Supervisor's relationship with his subordinates, organisation structure, individual and group behaviour, work habits and attitude, incentives, participation in decision-making, performance appraisal sy stems have impact on worker morale and motivation. Behavioural science provides us some insight on these aspects and therefore has a role to play in production and operations management. I G N O U 2 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in =============================================================== Question 2. Explain the product selection and stages involved therein. Product selection is an ongoing process in any organisation. In fact, as the environment changes, as new technology is developed and as new tastes are formed, the product should benefit from these developments; otherwise what is perceived to have added value today may not be perceived as such tomorrow. For example, jute has been in use as a packing medium for a long time.However, with changes in technology and consumer taste, the same product is no more perceived to ave added value and therefore, its demand has reduced. M Produ ibi ity The product election process is a highly integrative process. Thus product function, cost, quality and reliability are some of the inputs to this decision. The producibility of a product/service measures the ease and the speed with which the output can be produced. The specialised equipment, specialised skills and specialised toolings, facilitate in switching production from one product to another etc. nd are thus important ‘ factors to assess producibility. It is also important to look at the complete range of products produced because a new product may either use the capacity of processes/sub-processes already established or may require the establishment of capacity of some processes/sub-processes. A family of-similar products is much yI Product selection is a strategic dec ion, thereby involves other functional areas like marketing, research and dev lopment and as well also the top management therein.The operation managem nt function provides vital inputs regarding the production of the product o se vice in the e decisions making. G Produc t selection is a strategic decision for any organisati n. Such decisi s a long term decisions and the organisation commits itself to the product/pro ucts selected for a long time to come. What products to produce-in w at form and w th what features-is very important because many other de sions- or example he technology used, the capacity of the productive system, the locat n of production facilities, the organisation of the production function the planning and control systems, etc. re dependent on this. The competitiveness and rofi bility o a firm depend in part on the design and quality of the products and serv es that it produces, and on the cost of production. The design of a product or service may make it expensive to produce and a change in design may make it possible to duce he same in a less expensive way. Similarly, one design of a produ or serv ce m y require large and expensive additions to capacity of some pro ess whereas a change in design may make it possible to produce the same with e isting c pacity. N O U A Strategic Decision M yI G N O U To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in The output ideas thus generated are then screened where their match with corporate objectives and policies is studied and their market viability is established. A detailed economic analysis is then performed to determine the probable profitability of the product or service. For non-profit organisations, this takes the form of a cost-benefit analysis. This is followed by development of the product or service from a concept to a tangible entity and finally by design and testing.No Smooth Sequence Although Figure I depicts product selection as a sequential process where one stage follows another, in reality, the process may not be so smooth as shown. Thus, economic analysis may have to be done after output development if reliab e cost estimates are not available at the earlier stage. Similarly, new product featur may be added at any of the above stages, thereb y initiating a whole new cycle. Final y as product selection is an ongoing process, there is no finality to the pr cess since as some new product ideas are being processed, still new ideas enter the utput sele tion process and this may go on and on.The product selection rocess herefo en ures a continuous match between what is demanded and what i produced. In some cases, the production process has also to be des gned along w h the product or service. This has to be done, for example, when the m ket viabilit of the product depends on low cost and so the production process h s to be decid d along with the product design. Or take the case of another product whe e it is felt imperative to obtain a large market share right from the in ial l h It may become necessary to establish a large capacity for the production pr cess right from the beginning.The production process has to be design d along with he product in such a case. The previous section highlig ted th fact th an output possibilit y has to cross several hurdles before it enters e market as a commercial product or service. The new idea mortality curve p esents e same in a graphical manner. Figure II shows the mortality curve for a hypothetical group of fifty chemical product-ideas. Although the p duct id s ar hypothetical, still the stage-wise mortality as well as the time frame sho n is quite i dicative.Figure II assumes that after three years of research fifty po enti chemica product-ideas are available for consideration. Initial scre ning r duces this number to about half and after economic analysis, by the end of year f ur the number of potential products decreases to nine. The mortality of deas continues over time and by the end of five-and-a-half years, at the completion of he product and process development stages, the number has already fallen to about five.Design and testing reduces this further to about three and by the end of construction, market development and commercialisation, just about one suc cessful product is left.. Figure 11 is based on international experience, and situation in India has not been tested empirically. Thus, the mortality curve should be treated as an indicative proposition in the Indian context. M yI G New-Idea Mortality Curve N O U 5 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in M The curve also show that co verting product ideas into marketable products is a slow process.For chemical produc on an average it takes six years to commercialise a product after the ini al research has been completed, as is shown by Figure II. At the end of t all, a product ommerc ally launched may not turn out to be successful and the mortali y may exte d to the product as well. The actual figures in Figure †¢II are only indicative and within an industry firm's differ in the speed at which they can convert a product idea into a commercial product. Some organisations are more innovative than others and they are always ahead with more new product ideas.Similarly , some organisations are more risk-taking than others and attach a high priority to being a pioneer with new products than others who are relatively risk-averse and would like to do a more thorough job of screening, economic analysis, product development, design and testing and would perhaps also wait-it-out to see how some others have fared with similar products. =============================================================== yI G 6 N O U To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Question 3. Define Job Design. How has management viewed job design since the industrial revolution?JOB DESIGN is the process of putting together various elements to form a job, bearing in mind organizational and individual worker requirements, as well as considerations of health, safety, and ergonomics. The scientific management approach of Frederick Winslow Taylor viewed job design as purely mechanistic, but the later human relations movement rediscovered the importance of workers' relationsh ip to their work and stressed the importance of job satisfaction. Job design refers to the way that a set of tasks, or an entire job, is organized. Job design helps to determine.It takes into account all factors which affect the work, and organizes the content and tasks so that he whole job is less likely to be a risk to the employee. Job design involves administrative eas such as: job rotation, job enlargement, task/machine pacing, work breaks, and work ng hours. A well designed job will encourage a variety of ‘good' body posi ons, have re sonable strength requirements, require a reasonable amount of mental activ y and he p foster feelings of achievement and self-esteem. Job design refers to the way that a set of tasks, or an ent e job, is orga ized.Job design helps to determine: what tasks are done, how the tasks are done, how many tasks are done, and in what order the tasks are done. It takes into account all factors which affect e work and organizes the content and tasks s o that the whole job is less like to be a risk t the employee. Job design involves administrative areas such as: job rotation, job enlargement, task/machine pacing, work breaks, and working hours A well designed job ill encourage a variety of ‘good' body positions, have reasonable streng requirem nts, require a reasonable amount of mental activity, and help foster feelings of achie ement and self-esteem.In productio and operations, Job design follows the planning and designing of product, process, and equipment. Job design specifies the content of each job and determines how work is distributed within the organization. Management viewed job design since the industrial revolution in the approaches to Job Design USING SOCIO TECHNICAL SYSTEMS There are three important approaches to job design, viz. , Engineering approach, Human approach and The Job characteristic approach. Engineering Approach M yI G N O U To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in The most important s ingle element in the Engineering approaches, proposed by FW Taylor and others, was the task idea, â€Å"The work of every workman is fully planned out by the management at least one day in advance and each man receives in most cases complete written instructions, describing in detail the task which he is to accomplish . . . This task specifies not only what is to be done but how it is to be done and the exact time allowed for doing it. The principles offered by scientific management to job design can be summarized thus: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Work should be scientifically studied. As advocated fragmentation and reutilization of work to reap the advantages of specialisation. Work should be arranged so that workers can be efficient. Employees selected for work should be matched to the demands of the job. Employees should be trained to perform the job. Monetary compensation should be used to reward succes ful performa ce of the job. Two types of facto viz. ) motivator s like achievements, recognition, work itself, responsibility, d anceme t a d growth and (ii) hygiene factors (which merely maintain the employee o th job and in the organization) like working conditions, organisational polici inter-personn l relations, pay and job security. The employee is dissatisfied with the job f maintenance factors to the required degree are not introduced into the job. But, the employee may ot be satisfied even if the required maintenance factors are provided. The employe will be satisfied with his job and he will be more productive if motivators are introduced into the job content.As such, he asserts that the job designer has to introduce hygienic factors adequately to reduce dissatisfaction and build motivating factors. Thus, THE emphasis is on the psychological needs of the employees in designing jobs. The Job Characteristics Approach M yI G The human relations approach r cognised the ed to design jobs in an interesting manner. In the past two decade much w rk has been directed to changing jobs so that job incumbents can satisfy th r needs for growth, recognition and responsibilility, enhancing need satisfactio through what is c lled job enrichment.One widely publicised approach to job enrichment ses w t is alled job characteristics model and this has been explained separately n the nsuing section. N Human Relations Approach O These principles to job design seem to be quite rational and appeal g bec e they point towards increased organisational performance. Specia isation and outinisation over a period of time result in job incumbents becoming exper rather quick y, leading to higher levels of output. Despite the assumed gains in fficien y, behavi ural scientists have found that some job incumbents dislike specialised and routin j bs. UThe Job Characteristics Theory states that employees will work hard when they are rewarded for the work they do and when the work gives them satisfaction. Hence, they suggest that motivation, satisfacti on and performance should be integrated in the job 8 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in design. According to this approach, any job can be described in terms of five core job dimensions which are defined as follows: (a) Skill variety: The degree to which the job requires that workers use a variety of different activities, talents and skills in order to successfully complete the job requirements. b) Task identity: The degree to which the job allows workers to complete whole tasks from start to finish, rather than disjointed portions of the job. (c) Task significance: The degree to which the job significantly impacts the lives of others both within and outside the workplace. (d) Autonomy: The degree to which the job allows workers freedom in planning and scheduling and the methods used to complete the job. (e) Feedback: The degree to which the job itself provides workers with lear, direct and understandable knowledge of their performance.M Question 4. ============== = =============================================== Discuss the va iation in the approach of planning and controlling of mass, batch and job shop production. Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial production) is the production of large amounts of standardized products on production lines. It was popularized by Henry Ford in the early 20th century, notably in his Ford Model T. yIJobs that are high on motivating potential m st be h gh at least in one of the three factors that lead to meaningful work an must b hig in both autonomy and feedback and vice versa. These three critical psyc ological sta s lead to the outcome such as (a) high internal work motivation, (b) high gr wth satisfaction, (c) high quality work performance, (d) high general job satisfaction, (e) high work effectiveness and (f) low absenteeism and turnover The odel says that internal rewards are obtained by an individual when he learns t at he personally has performed well on a task that he cares about.G N The core job dimensions can be combined int a sin le predicti e index called the Motivating Potential Score. Its computation is as foll ws: Motivating Skill variety + Task identity + Task signific nce potential = x Autonomy x Feedback score O U All of the job dimensions impact workers psychologically. The irst three dimensions affect whether or not workers view their job as meaningful Autonomy determines the extent of responsibility workers feel. Feedback allows for eelings f sati facti n for a job well done by providing knowledge of results. To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Mass production typically uses moving tracks or conveyor belts to move partially complete products to workers to perform simple repetitive tasks. This permits very high rates of production. Mass production is capital intensive, as it uses a high proportion of machinery in relation to workers. With fewer labour costs and a faster rate of produ ction, capital is increased while expenditure is decreased.However the machinery that is needed to set up a mass production line is so expensive that there must be some assurance that the product is to be successful to attain profits. Machinery for mass production such as robots and machine presses have high installation costs as well. Thus, mass production is ideally suited to serve large, relatively homogeneous populations of consumers, whose demand would satisfy the long production runs required by this method of manufacturing. As such, it is not surprising that, given a number of other factors, mass producti n first became prevalent in the United States.One of the descriptions of mass production is that the craftsmansh is in the wo kbench itself, not the training of the worker; rather than having a skilled wo ker measu e every dimension of each part of the product against the plans r the o her pa ts as it is being formed, there are jigs and gauge blocks that are ready t hand to e sure that the part is made to fit this set-up. It has already been checked hat the finis ed part will be to specifications to fit all the other finished parts – a d it w l be made quicker, with no time spent on finishing the parts to fit one another.This the sp cializ d capital required for mass production; each workbench is different and eac set of tools at each workbench limited to those necessary to make one p t. A ch of these parts is uniformly and consistently constructed, interchangeability o components is thus another hallmark of mass produced goods. Mass production systems are us ally organized into assembly lines. The assemblies pass by on a conveyor, or if they are h avy, hung fr m an overhead monorail. In a factory for a complex produc rather han one assembly line, there may be many auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i. . car engines or seats) to a backbone â€Å"main† assembly line. A di gram of a typical mass-production factory looks more l ike the skeleton of a fish than a sing e line. Batch production i a manufa uring method used to produce or process any product in batches as opposed a conti uous production process, or a one-off production. The primary ch racter stic of batch production is that all components are completed at a workstati n befo e hey move to the next one. Batch production is popular in bakeries and in the manufacture of sports shoes, pharmaceutical ingredients, inks, paints and adhesives.In th manufacture of inks and paints, a technique called a colour-run is used. A colour-run is where one manufactures the lightest color first, such as light yellow followed by the next increasingly darker colour such as orange, then red and so on until reaching black and then starts over again. This minimizes the cleanup and reconfiguring of the machinery between each batch. White (by which is meant opaque paint, not transparent ink) is the only colour that cannot be used in a colour run due to the fact that a smal l amount of white pigment can adversely affect the medium colours.M yI G N O U 10 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in There are inefficiencies associated with batch production. The production equipment must be stopped, re-configured, and its output tested before the next batch can be produced. Time between batches is known as ‘down time'. Batch production is useful for a factory that makes seasonal items or products for which it is difficult to forecast demand. Batch production has many â€Å"pros† and â€Å"cons† but is effective and used worldwide, mainly by larger businesses on higher profit margins.There are several advantages of batch production; it can reduce initial capital outlay because a single production line can be used to produce several products. As shown in the example, batch production can be useful for small businesses who cann t afford to run continuous production lines. Also, companies can use batch production as a rial run. I f a retailer buys a batch of a product that does not sell then the producer an cease production without having to sustain huge losses. The term Job Shop Production (JSP) describes a m nufact ing e viro ment that produces piece goods in small batches.It is a common manufactu ing environment in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The inc ming orders often differ in the number of ordered products, their design, process charac ristics (for example, routeings, operation processing times, and set up times), or ur ency. Becau of this variation the control of the material flows in this type of compan s is extremely complex. It can hardly be predicted how the production o ers ill be vided across the machines in future periods. A high demand on machines nd varying production orders cause long waiting times of orders on the shop floor.The d rect consequence is that lead times are long and unreliable, whereas nowadays sho nd rel able delivery times are required. Most of the problems in j ob pro uction a ise fr m the variety of jobs arriving and demanding individual processing equences on the scarce facilities in the job shop. Owing to these factors the jo shop chara erized by the following typical problems: complicated and unsystematic material flow patterns large in-process inventorie large waiting times for jobs large completi n times f r jobs unpredictable p ob ms owing o the large variety of tasks M Question 5Discuss the various methods for stores accounting and verification systems. Stores Accounting Systems Stores accounting is important from the point of view of estimating the cost of the product for pricing decisions. The costing of material has to be done both for the materials consumed in the production and estimating the value of materials held in stock. For the purpose of costing the receipt of materials, the factors that should be included yI G N O U 11 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in are material price, freight charges, insurance, duties, taxes, packaging charges etc.The prices quoted and accepted in purchase order may often be stated in various ways such as net prices, prices with discount terms, free on board, cost, insurance, freight, etc. All these factors should be appropriately accounted while costing for the incoming materials. Another important accounting is to be done for the issue to production and of the stocks held at the end of accounting period. Let us discuss some of the important and frequently used system for this purpose: a) FIFO System: This system known as First in First Out System is based on the assumption that the oldest stock is depleted first.Therefore, at the time of issue the rate pertaining to that will be applied. There is no `profit' or `loss' in the p icing arrangements. The value of the stocks held on hand is the money that has be n paid for that amount of stock at latest price levels. In case of too many changes in pr e levels the FIFO System becomes unwieldy. Another limitat ions of is system is at it fails to provide a satisfactory answer to costing-returns from stores. ) LIFO System: This system known as `Last in First Out' System i based on the assumption that the most recent receipts are issued first As the lastest prices are charged in this system, it leads to lower reported p ofits i the periods of rising prices and this offers savings in taxes. In case of wide fluct tions pric s this system tends to immunise unrealised gains or losses in invento y It has almost the same limitations as that of FIFO System. c) Average Cost System: This is b sed on the as umption that issues to production department are equally made from different ipmen s in stock, i. . an average cost of shipment in stores is charged t stabili es th cost figures. The average is to be calculated by dividing the total co t with the n mber of items and is to be updated with every new purchase. d) Market Value System: This is lso known as replacement rate costing, in which the material s issued are char ed the prevailing market rates. This system underestimate e stock n h nd in the case of price increase, whereas it overestimates the s ck on han in the case of price decrease. This may in turn lead to writing off huge mo t to mak it realistic.Moreover, a continuous monitoring of the ma ket tes for all materials makes the system cumbersome. e) Standard Cost System: In this system a detailed analysis of market price and trends is carrie out to determine a standard rate for a fixed period, say six months or so. This standard rate is charged to materials issued during this period irrespective of the actual rate. After the period is over the standard rate is reviewed and updated. This system reflects the efficient use of materials as the fluctuation in rates is not considered in accounting. Moreover, it adds to clerical efficiency as the fresh rates are not to be obtained every time.However, similar to Market Value Approach, this also leads to underestimating or overest imating stocks on hand in case of rising and falling prices respectively. f) System of Costing the Closing Stock: The general guideline for this purpose is to M yI G N O U 12 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in use market price or stock at cost, whichever is less. : The cost of closing stock is governed mainly by price units, obsolescence and deterioration. In rare cases the stock may appreciate with time. Appropriate formulae to account for these factors should be developed keeping in view the past experience.Stock Verification Systems Some discrepancies between the actual and the book balances of inventories are bound to occur despite the diligent store keeping. The process of stock verification is carried out for following purposes: i) To reconcile the store records and documents for their accuracy and usefulness, ii) Identification of areas deserving tighter document control, iii) To back-up the balance sheet stock figures, and iv) To minimise the pilferage and fraudulent practices. Most companies keep an â€Å"inventory short and over† account to abs b such discrepancies, which is eventually closed into the manufacturing overh ads account.Some of the systems of physical stock taking are as follow : a) Annual or Periodic Physical Verification: In this system the entir inventory is physically verified at the end of a period, usually t e accounting period. That is, normally at the end of fiscal year. Stocks are closed f r a fe days This may necessitate the shut down of production operations;. ‘ th activities such as repair and overhaul of equipment and machinery are r orte A s cial crew of store inspectors and stores verifying officers, usually from the material audit, physically check each item and compare the e tries on bin c rd and stores ledger.This leads to the formation of a list of surplus r short ite Dam ged and obsolete items are traced and recorded. This needs o develop a de ailed programme and schedule to complete th e verifications storew se and item ise. Top management's sanction can then be sought for writing off defici ncies o valuing surplus. As all the items are checked at ne time there can be no confusion about any item being left unchecked. b) Perpetual n entory nd Continuous Stock Taking System: In case of large firms dealing w th large num er of items the final inventory system may take a lot of time and it may no e possib e to shut down the whole plant.The perpetual invent ry system i a more appropriate method for large plants. In this method the stock ver ficatio is done continuously throughout the year. Different methods are adopted by ifferent firms for continuous verification. Some firms div de the whole inventory into fifty-two equal parts. Each part is verified every week. Some firms record store balances after every receipt and issue, and a number of items are counted daily or at frequent intervals and checked with the bin cards and stores ledger. Discrepancies found, if any, o wing to incorrect entries, breakage pilferage, over-issue, placing of items in wrong bins, etc. are investigated and corrected accordingly. The significant advantages of this system are as follows: i) The shut down of the plant is not necessary for stock checking/taking. ii) The method is less costly, less tiring, less cumbersome and hence is more accurate. iii) Discrepancies and defects in stores are readily detected and are not carried over M yI G N O U 13 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in throughout the year. This prevents damages and losses. iv) Slow moving stocks can be noted and proper action can be initiated in time. v) The stock items are kept within the limits. ) Low Point Inventory System: Some companies take the physical inventory, i. e. the stock level of stores is checked generally when it reaches its minimum level. Question 6. Write Short notes on: a) Work Sampling Work Sampling is a fact-finding tool. It is a measurement technique for quantit ive a nalysis, in terms of time, of the activity of operators, machines, or f any observ ble state or condition of operation. This tool is particularly useful when inf rmation urgently needed about men or machines, especially in the analysis f non-r p titive or irregularly occurring activity where no complete method and frequen y description is available.Work sampling can be used to study almost a y type of wor : repetitive and non-repetitive, factory or office, executive or supe visory, clerical or ngineering, handlers, salesmen, nurses and what have you. a) Some uses of Work Sampling Work Sampling provides a w y to: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ M yI obtain information bout ei er certain long cycle work or nonrepetitive type of jobs for which it would be clearly impractical to use continuous observ i n methods i dicate if certa activit es should be studied in detail. elp sign the work load distribution in formulating a new work system. t u y any op ration for possible methods improvement. help e tablish job content as an aid to job evaluation and employment purposes. aid supervisors to organise their time. aid appraisal of shop effectiveness, efficiency, safety performance etc. provide feedback information about compliance to stated management policies. assist in establishing standards of performance. establish controls on labour, material or machine utilisation. G N Work sampling is a method of randomly obs rving k ting state or condition of the object being studied.From the proportions f observations in each category, inferences are drawn concerning th total work ac vity under study. It can be used for fact-finding, work measurem nt and m h ds analysis. O U The object of the observations maybe personnel, equipment or facilities which can be categorised as follows: 14 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in Typical categories applied to people are (a) Working (b) Being idle (c) Being out of area (d) W alking (e) Handling material (f) Inspecting (g) Changing tools (h) Cleaning up (i) Handling clerical tasks (j) Talking.Typical categories applied to machines/equipment’s are: At work (b) Idle-no operator (c) Idle-no stock (d) Idle-being serviced (e) Idle interference. ——————————————————————————————————–b) Acceptance Sampling Acceptance sampling uses statistical sampling to determine whether to acc pt or reject a production lot of material. It has been a common quality control techniq used in industry and particularly the military for contracts and procuremen It is usually done as products leave the factory, or in some cases even within the fac ry.Mos often a producer supplies a consumer a number of items and deci on to a cept o reje t the lot is made by determining the number of defective items in a sample from the lot. The lot is accepted if the number of defects falls below where th acceptance n mber or otherwise the lot is rejected. One of the powerful statistical techniques of quality ontrol is Acceptance Sampling. This technique is generally used in those si atio where items are inspected in batches, generally known as lots.The acceptability w l depend on the acceptable quality of the lot, which in turn depends on the u e and the pric you are willing to pay for this quality. Acceptance is based on the infe ence mad from th sample and hence the technique is known as Acceptance Sampling Typically a lo is specified by its size and the fraction of defectives that are expected to e present ( t the most) in the lot. The principles of statistics are used in the infe nce p cess One of the powerful statist al tech iques of quality control is Acceptance Sampling.This technique is generally sed in those situations wher e items are inspected in batches, gener l y know as l ts. For example, you may receive a shipment of 10,000 electric bulbs and y u may ha to decide whether to accept the shipment or return it back to the suppl er. T e accept bility will depend on the acceptable quality of the lot, wh ch turn depends on the use and the price you are willing to pay for this quality. S ppose you decide to accept if the average fraction defective is less than 5 per cent. Th n to ascertain the actual quality you may decide to inspect each acid every bulb.Su h a strategy of. 100 per cent inspection, however, may often be expensive and impractical. In such cases a more intelligent way is to use the concept of Sampling Inspection. ——————————————————————————————————-c) Value Engineering & Analysis Value Engineering or value analysis is a systematic method to improve the â€Å"Value† of goods and services by using an examination of FUNCTION. Value, as defined, is the M yI G N O U 15 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in ratio of Function to Cost.Value can therefore be increased by either improving the Function or reducing the cost. It is a primary tenet of Value Engineering that quality not be reduced as a consequence of pursuing Value improvements. Value Engineering is sometimes taught within the industrial engineering body of knowledge as a technique in which the value of a system’s outputs is optimized by crafting a mix of performance (Function) and costs. In most cases this practice identifies and removes unnecessary expenditures, thereby increasing the value for the manufacturer and/or their customers.Value Engineering uses intuitive logic (a unique â€Å"how† – â€Å"why† questioning technique) an d the analysis of Function to identify relationships that increase Value. It is considered a quantitative method similar to the Scientific Method, which focuses n Hypothesis Conclusion to test relationships, and Operations Research, which uses mod l building to identify predictive relationships. A viable Value Engineering Program is predicated upon an adequa return on investment, typically 1% of total obligated authority for DLA activitie Benefits include: Reduced acquisition costs. Reduced life cycle costs.Reduced total ownership costs. Standardization, simplification or el BEST VALUE! Planning M yI At the Planning stage of developm nt, there are additional benefits to be derived from a Value Engineering Workshop. An independent team can: Review he rogram Perform a fun ional ana ysis of the facility Ob in the wner users definition of value D fine th k y criteria and objectives for the project Veri y/validate the proposed program Review master plan utility options (e. g. Central Uti lity Plant versus individual systems) Offer alternative solutions (square footage needs per function, adjacency solutions, etc. Verify if the budget is adequate for the developed program G VE can be applied at any point in a project can b used in a tractor manufacturing firm also. The main stages of a projec and VE s app cation are described below. N O ina U of o rations or materials. Design This is the stage that most VE participants are used to becoming involved, when the design has at least made it to the schematic stage. The primary tool available to the VE 16 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in team is the Workshop—typically a 40-hour session (or less for smaller or less complex projects).The Workshop is an opportunity to bring the design team and client together to review the proposed design solutions, the cost estimate, and proposed implementation schedule and approach, with a view to implementing the best value for the money. The definition of what i s good value on any particular project will change from client to client and project to project. Methodology and Approach During the actual Workshop portion of the VE study, the five-step Job Pl Information Phase Speculation (Creative) Phase Evaluation (Analysis) Phase Development Phase (Value Management Proposal Presentation Phase (Report/Oral Presentation) Construction s followed: Examples of M Russian liquid-fu l ro ket moto s are intentionally designed to permit ugly (though leakfree) w ldi g Thi reduces costs by eliminating grinding and finishing operations that do not help e mot r function better. Some Japanese disc brakes have parts tolerances to three millimeters, an easy-to-meet precision. When combined with crude statistical process controls, this assures that less than one in a million parts will fail to fit. ————————————————————†”—————————————-d. Waste Management. yI lue Engineering During this phase value engineering is still possible thr ugh the use of Value Engineering Change Proposals (VECP). Contractors can be p ided onetary incentives to propose solutions that offer enhanced value to the owner, and share in the financial benefits realized. Clearly the owner must c nsider contra tor-generated proposals very carefully, from a life-cycle perspective and a liability p rspect ve.The A/E team must be brought in to the decision-making proces to agr e to he proposed change as not having any negative impact on the overall de ign and buil ing function. The evaluation of a VECP is treated similarly to any cha ge ord r during construction, with issues such as schedule and productivity impacts bei g considered along with the perceived cost savings generated. G N O U 17 To download more solved assignments visit myignou. in M Disposing of waste in a landfill i volves burying waste to dispose of it, and this remains a common practice in most countr s.Histo ically, landfills were often established in disused quarries, mining void or borrow pits. A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygieni and elatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly-de igned or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse envir menta impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of iq d leacha Another common byproduct of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methan and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down n robical y.Th gas an create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenho se gas =======================xxx======xxxx============================ yI G N Waste management practices differ for developed and d veloping na ions, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial, produ ers. M nagem nt f or non-hazardous residential and institutional waste in metropolitan are s is usually the responsibility of local government authorities, while man t for n n-hazardous commercial and industrial waste is usually the responsibil y of the g nerator.Waste management methods for vary widely between are s for many reasons, including type of waste material, nearby land uses, and th area avail ble. O U Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal of waste materials. The term usually relates to materials produced by human acti ty, and is generally undertaken to reduce their effect on health, aesthet s or amenity Waste management is also carried out to reduce the materials' effect on the nvironme t and to recover resources from them.

Impact of Water Shortage on Humans and the Environment

In Sandra Posted article she explains the Impact Lack of water will have on Humans and the environment. She begins the article by stating that, â€Å"our water problem turns out to be much more worrisome than our energy problem† (Posted 1). She goes on to explain that human activity, the increase in global warming temperatures and humans altering of our natural waterways are the blame for the water problem. She gives examples of natural water disasters and she also explains that as the population grows more demand has caused global water shortages.She also talks about how water is absolutely essential for all life forms. There is no way for us to survive without water. There is absolutely no substitute for water and why we must work hard to conserve it. She explains that we can reverse the water problem. She said that energy and water are connected and that we need one to have another. Posted said there are multiple problems that the world must focus on. She said In the past d ecades we have had floods, storms, droughts, dam's breaks and famines.She points out that most Americans think these disasters only happen in faraway countries, but in fact in the last couple of years Americans have experienced floods and natural disasters. She also commented that the water challenges confronting us locally, regionally, and globally are unprecedented. She finishes up the article by explaining that if we allow dams to be taken down and natural water purifying systems to be put back Into place could help water scarcity will be self-fixing. I found Sandra Pastel's article extremely critical.She talks about the importance of shrinking our personal water footprints and that the amount of water used to produce all the things we buy Is staggering. She also explains that â€Å"the average U. S. Resident uses, directly and indirectly, about 2,480 pubic meters of water per year- about 1 ,800 gallons per day-twice the global average† (Posted 8). That statement bought ba ck memories of the water shortage some years ago. We were asked to not flush toilets, take less baths and not water our lawns.I never heard any government official or community leaders talking about building a long-term contingency plans. What I did hear was a lot talk about why we were experiencing the water shortages. The main reason given was low rain fall amounts and this was said to cause our flow into the river to be below normal. Pastel's article has made a believer out of me. I am ready to commit to doing whatever it takes to conserve water. The united States and other countries need to band together in these conservation efforts. I believe that if we educate people on water conservation.The more they will be willing to help. In my opinion. The best way right now to help with water conversation is to raise public awareness and enforce laws. A strong point in this article was the message: â€Å"Energy and water toy 2 13). I agree with Posted views on fossil fuels which can l ead to even more water being conserved. I really think that we can partner with other countries to make a lasting impact. Farmers can also make a huge impact on conserving water by using efficient irrigation equipment and weather APS.Using these APS along with irrigation systems can help save water. Farmers can also use proper soil management, water recycling and organic farming methods. Using organic farming methods will reduce the amount of water used. Sandra Pastel's article has made me more aware of our water crisis. What is the solution? In the future, residential communities will have to take into account possible water shortages. One way to do that would be to build homes that are more water efficient akin to energy efficiency. This would include low flow bathrooms and efficient lawn watering systems.In the meantime there is so much an individual can do to make a world of difference with small adjustments such as detecting leaks, visiting your local water conservation office, turn off the water while you are lathering your hands, turning off water when brushing your teeth, and upgrading older toilets. I plan to spread the word and be a water advocate with my neighbors, friends and coworkers. I will also attend local water district meetings. We have a long way to go, but a deeper appreciation of the nature of the water problem is needed.Often, the public tends to confuse the term global change with global warming and do not associate the global change with the problem of water scarcity. Global shortage of water, now is the real inconvenient truth. We must take heed and react quickly before it is too late. I believe that we can meet these challenges if we work together. Our Joint efforts will go a long way towards alleviating this growing problem. Then we must we elect politicians who takes the survival of our planet a priority, we might be able to slow down global warming and conserve water before it is to late.

Free Essays on Sistine Chapel

The chapel was built between 1475 and 1483, in the time of Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere. A basic feature of the chapel itself, so obvious that it is sometimes ignored, is the papal function, as the pope's chapel and the location of the elections of new popes. Furthermore, the building was in some respects a personal monument to the Della Rovere family, since Sixtus IV saw to its actual construction and the frescoes beneath the vaults, and his nephew Julius II commissioned the ceiling decoration. Oak leaves and acorns abound, heraldic symbols of the family whose name means literally "from the oak." The Chapel is rectangular in shape and measures 40,93 meters long by 13,41 meters wide, i.e. the exact dimensions of the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament. It is 20,70 meters high and is surmounted by a shallow barrel vault with six tall windows cut into the long sides, forming a series of pendentives between them. A marble mosaic floor of exquisite workmanship describes the processional itinerary up to and beyond the marble screen, to the innermost space, where it offers a surround for the papal throne and the cardinals' seats. The architectural plans were made by Baccio Pontelli and the construction was supervised by Giovanino de'Dolci. The walls are divided into three orders by horizontal cornices; according to the decorative program, the lower of the three orders was to be painted with fictive "tapestries," the central one with two facing cycles - one relating the life of Moses (left wall) and the other the Life of Christ (right wall), starting from the end wall, where the altar fresco, painted by Perugino, depicted the Virgin of the Assumption, to whom the chapel was dedicated. The upper order is endowed with pilasters that support the pendentives of the vault. Above the upper cornice are situated the lunettes. Between each window below the lunettes, in fictive niches, run images of the first popes - from Peter to Marc... Free Essays on Sistine Chapel Free Essays on Sistine Chapel The Sistine Chapel was built in 1473 under Pope Sixtus. It is most famous for it’s beautiful decorations and artwork. There are different colored marble floor mosaics, which are well known, but the paintings on the walls and ceilings are the chapel’s most famous feature. Frescoes by many artists cover the walls depicting scenes from the lives of Moses and Christ. However the most famous achievements in the chapel are the artwork of Michelangelo. Across the ceilings he painted nine episodes from genesis that are representations of the stages of creation and man’s temptation and fall. Below these scenes are the scenes of figures and prophets with episodes from the Old Testament, all designed for the salvation of Christianity. The last great work in the chapel was Michelangelo’s Last Judgment on the altar wall. Over the following years the wall accumulated soot and animal glues from previous restorers. By 1980 cleaning and restoration of Michelangelo’s frescoes began. Before beginning the restoration, computers were used to map every single inch of the 2,732-square-foot ceiling. A huge movable scaffold was used to test the areas, much like the one Michelangelo used while painting. After all the testing was done, full restorations were in progress. The dull, dark ceilings of the Sistine chapel no longer exist. The vivid colors provide a new way of looking at Michelangelo’s work. It took restorers a total of fourteen years (from 1981 to 1995) to remove the centuries’ worth of grime and decay. The restoration of the chapel is often called the restoration of the century. But it was followed by much controversy. After restoration was completed many people argued and were upset, saying that the restorers had distorted and destroyed all of the frescoes. Some people even said that it has been ruined. They complained that Michelangelo had used a second coat of paint to soften the colors and that the restorer... Free Essays on Sistine Chapel The chapel was built between 1475 and 1483, in the time of Pope Sixtus IV della Rovere. A basic feature of the chapel itself, so obvious that it is sometimes ignored, is the papal function, as the pope's chapel and the location of the elections of new popes. Furthermore, the building was in some respects a personal monument to the Della Rovere family, since Sixtus IV saw to its actual construction and the frescoes beneath the vaults, and his nephew Julius II commissioned the ceiling decoration. Oak leaves and acorns abound, heraldic symbols of the family whose name means literally "from the oak." The Chapel is rectangular in shape and measures 40,93 meters long by 13,41 meters wide, i.e. the exact dimensions of the Temple of Solomon, as given in the Old Testament. It is 20,70 meters high and is surmounted by a shallow barrel vault with six tall windows cut into the long sides, forming a series of pendentives between them. A marble mosaic floor of exquisite workmanship describes the processional itinerary up to and beyond the marble screen, to the innermost space, where it offers a surround for the papal throne and the cardinals' seats. The architectural plans were made by Baccio Pontelli and the construction was supervised by Giovanino de'Dolci. The walls are divided into three orders by horizontal cornices; according to the decorative program, the lower of the three orders was to be painted with fictive "tapestries," the central one with two facing cycles - one relating the life of Moses (left wall) and the other the Life of Christ (right wall), starting from the end wall, where the altar fresco, painted by Perugino, depicted the Virgin of the Assumption, to whom the chapel was dedicated. The upper order is endowed with pilasters that support the pendentives of the vault. Above the upper cornice are situated the lunettes. Between each window below the lunettes, in fictive niches, run images of the first popes - from Peter to Marc...

How To Write A Last-Minute Essay

How To Write A Last-Minute Essay How to Write a Last-Minute Essay Sometimes students get caught up by time, and he/she is forced to write an essay uncomfortably quickly to meet the deadline. Students find themselves in this situation for either having postponed writing the perfect essay for too long or he/she has been busy to find the time and work on the assignment. However, do not worry, is it very possible to write the essay in the last minute. Needless to say, as a good and focused student it is advised you make preemptive plans to beat the assignment deadline and avoid last minute rush since it is not advisable for your grades. This article offers some insightful tips, do’s and don’ts on how to write a last-minute essay. Adopt the right mindset When it is too late to start the work, anyone can panic and restlessness. Such emotional discontentment would worsen the situation and make you lose focus. Remain goal-oriented and optimistic that you would meet the deadline and get to work. Last minute essay writing requires focus and attention and intolerance to negative thoughts. Plan and prepare your workstation Pick a good working station or create one. Ensure you have a comfortable seating position, clean environment and proper and lighting. Assemble all the materials you need for the essay writing and keep them on the working table. Â  Plan how to execute each of your tasks ahead and slot time for them. Start with the easier tasks and handle the more complicated ones later. Switch off your phone and social networks Distraction is the last thing you need when writing an essay at the last minute. To avoid unnecessary distraction, switch off your mobile phone and log out all social networking sites. This allows you to focus on finishing the work. The irresistible urge to open social network or your phone is much lower and aggressive is they are out of reach. Inform your friends and family members that you will be busy doing your homework for a while, and you do not need interruption or distraction unless it is a serious emergency. Read the question carefully Read and understand the tasks very well. If you rush to answer the questions, you are more likely to miss some details or give irrelevant information. Irrelevant information is the last thing you would wish to have at this time,needless to say, it would set you back and threaten your scores. Type your essay rather than handwriting it Handwriting and then transferring the typed work wastes a lot of precious time. Therefore, type rather than handwrite to save on the work. Keep saving your work as you go along. This is the last time you need your computer, and therefore ensure you save your work on your computer and online to eliminate any chance of losing your progress to an electrical fault. While typing directly into the document, make your notes on the document to avoid using hard copies that need more time to integrate into your final document. Rewrite the notes into the essay with notes or support sentences to explain them. Save the introduction and conclusion To write a good introduction and conclusion requires time, which in this case is in limited supply. Therefore, avoid writing the introduction and conclusion after you are through with the body paragraphs. Writing the body paragraphs would give you leverage in writing them. For the conclusion, try to rewrite the conclusion whilst reasserting the thesis statement. Wrap the conclusion with a good summative statement in an interesting manner that wraps the content. Do the references as you go along Saving to do the referencing for the last minute is not only time consuming, but also likely to do unintentional plagiarism. For each time, you quote someone, ensure you reference properly since tracking the quotes later can be time-consuming and could lead easily be missed. Proofread as you go along Ensure your work is perfect as you progress. Proofread as you go on writing the essay to avoid later revisiting the whole essay to find and correct your mistakes. It also helps to avoid leaving out important content in the essay writing. Each mistake is handled early and less likely going to be catastrophic. Don’t be tempted to copy and paste Do not be tempted to plagiarize your work. Do not assume your course instructor cannot note plagiarized work and if caught you will suffer grave consequences. Copy pasting also lowers the quality of your work since integrating distinctive texts from various sources may not be possible without proper synthesis of the information and editing it to fit your situation. Always remember, better late than never. Keep your style concise Do not attempt to try to violate the standard formatting guidelines according to the grading rubric. Large fonts, wider margins or over-spaced work not only looks ugly but also a sign of low-quality content. It also insinuates that the student did not do adequate research. Such theatrics are easily identifiable and do not assume your course facilitator cannot pick them up just by a glance at your essay. Take a break If you have to take a break, have it when you absolutely need it. Make it as short as possible and am sure you can also endure some pressure till you finish your work. Make sure you maintain your energy levels at optimum by taking a snack and keeping hydrated to avoid unnecessary breaks while working. If the scene you are working from is uncomfortable, try seeking refuge elsewhere where you can focus. Taking a break and returning to the same workstation may not be helpful in the long run. Concisely, the aforementioned tips and guidelines can be very helpful when doing last minute essay writing. This is the ultimate guideline on how to write an essay at the last minute, and hopefully, you found it helpful. However, do not dwell on it, rather get working to avoid the deadline from catching up with you.